Confucius and the Classic Age of Chinese Thought. Selections from the work of Professor Chi-yun Chen.
The classic age of Chinese thought began at a time when the old Chou religious, political, and social systems had become outmoded. The old feudal nobility declined. Its place was taken by the "new men" from the displaced nobles, appointed officials, peasant officers, etc. There was an urgent need to search for a new spiritual ideological foundation for the emerging state and society. Toward the end of the Spring and Autumn era, there was a period of uncertain peace among the central states. This relieved some of the best minds of China from the immediate concerns of battles and intrigues to take a long-range look at the future of the Chinese world and to reflect on the very nature of man. The first step in this direction was taken by Confucius.
The actual name of Confucius was K'ung Ch'iu. Those who respected him called him K'ung-tzu (Master K'ung) or simply "Tzu" (the Master). A more respectful way was to call him "Fu-Tzu" (the Venerable Master). And "Confucius" is the corrupted latinized form of "K'ung Fu-tzu" (the venerable Master K'ung). He was born in the state of Lü in 551 B.C. He was a descendant of the feudal house of the state of Sung, which was in turn the descendant of the Shang ruling clan. Confucius' family had moved to live in the state of Lu for some generations. He was therefore one of the displaced nobles in two senses.
Like many other displaced nobles, Confucius had a relatively good educational background. And like many other ambitions young men of his time, he was anxious to make an official career. He served in several minor government positions and acquired a broad knowledge of the world. In addition to the basic training in rituals and manner (li), music, archery, driving, writing, and counting, he was particularly interested in historical documents (shu) and odes (shih). He was most inquisitive and, according to his own saying, he could find a teacher in every gathering of three persons from whom he might learn something, big or small.
As his knowledge increased, his opinions on the current state of affairs also changed, ideal vs. reality. From a meticulous observer of the established conventions, he became an ardent advocator of reform. His fame began to spread. Around him gathered a group of like-minded "intellectuals", some older and some younger than Confucius. These became his early friends-and-disciples. The gathering constituted both a school of learning and a group of political activists. This probably got him into some difficulty. In 517 B.C., he left the state of Lü and went to Ch'i (and probable some other states), for two years. After he returned, he had some success in his official career. From 501 B.C. to 497 B.C., he rose to certain high positions. But he did not remain in high office too long.
In about 497 B.C., Confucius at the age of 54 was convinced that he could not put his ideal of reform in practice at Lu. He left the state and travelled to the other states (Weh, Ch'en, Ts'ai, Sung, and probably Chou and Cheng as well as some others), trying to find a ruler who could adopt his teaching. He was unsuccessful and suffered many hardships. Meanwhile, some of his friends and disciples had become influential in Lu and a few other states. In 484 B.C. at the age of 67 he was welcomed back to Lu, where he devoted his remaining 5 years to writing, learning and teaching. It was said that although he had seventy-two disciples and some 3000 lesser students. He died in 479 B.C. at the age of seventy-two. After his death, his friends and disciples gathered the accounts on the Master's sayings (and some outstanding actions) into a work, Lun-yü ("The Analects"), which constitutes the most reliable source concerning his teaching.
Confucius did not advocate violent revolution or destruction of the old institutions. Nor did he attempt to preserve them. He once said:
"The Chou dynasty learned the lessons of the two preceding dynasties (the Hsia and the Shang), and greatly improved the culture. I follow Chou."
This has often been interpreted to mean that Confucius looked back to the past for a model of perfection. But Confucius opined that Chou, a later dynasty, was better than its predecessors, and that he would follow an improved model rather than an earlier one. On another occasion, he said:
"The Chou inherited the Shang tradition (li, convention), but changed it as we know the Shang, in turn, had inherited the Hsia tradition, but also changed it as we know. According to this, we may know the condition of a time ten dynasties (generations?) further away from the present (in the past? or in the future?)."
From this, we may say the Confucius did not see civilization as static. He saw it as continuously changing. But he advocated change only a good purpose, not for its own sake. Thus he said that would used the calender of the Hsia (which was believed to be more accurate), ride on the the carriage of the Shang (which was still better), and wear the official cap of the Chou. (Legge, I, 298) Although Confucius probably believed that some elements of the Chou tradition were good, he did not define these. He thought li was important but he did not prescribe a system of li.
He might still believe in Heaven. For instance, once he had an interview with a notorious lady, and was afterward criticized by his disciple; in exasperation, he cried out: "If I had done any thing wrong, let Heaven condemn me!" In another occasion when his life was in danger, he exclaimed: "If Heaven wills to destroy civilization, I will die not seeing it; but if Heaven does not will to destroy civilization, no one can do me harm." All these were occasions of emotional outburst. Confucius seldom mentioned Heaven in his rational exposition. Once a disciple inquired about spirits and ghosts, Confucius said:
"(You) have not been able to serve men, how can (you) serve the dead?" The disciple ventured to inquire about death, and Confucius said:
"(You) have not yet known life, how can (you) know death."
"Men", human beings, each in his own station here and now, became the new basis on which Confucius hoped to build a new world. Most Confucius sayings in the Lun-yu were focused on "human being", even though on many occasions he did not specifically use the term.
The most important element in Confucius' teaching was expressed in the term jen, (a character made up of two human beings). This term has been variously translated as "love", "kindheartedness", "humankindness". The proper rendering should be "Being-human". Confucius opined that without jen, li and music would be of no worth; but if one aimed at jen, there would be no evil. Confucius praised many individual persons for their other virtues, but he seldom ever considered them to be attaining jen. Jen was not a mere state, which may be described and reached, but was a direction which all should aim at and a process in which every human being ascends to a higher state from which he will ascend to a still higher state. In a sense, Confucius' concept of jen is similar to the existentialist "being", which must be found out and existentially realized by every human being. It cannot be verbally described or stated, but must be actualized in action.
Since it is a process of "being-human", no man will be incapable of jen, but no man will be above and beyond it.
The second important element in Confucius' teaching is the ideal of learning and education. Confucius' concept of learning and education is closely related to his ideal of jen. To Confucius, education means not only formal schooling but a life-long process of being-jen learning and developing human essence. An all-encompassing social process in which every individual continuously improves himself and the whole mankind elevates themselves to a higher and higher state. It means civilization itself. Since jen cannot be abstractly stated, Confucius quite distrusted verbal communication in learning and education. He frequently criticized empty words and fine talks and emphasized the importance of action and practice. He said:
"In ancient times, people would not speak out, being ashamed that they might not be able to practice it."
"A gentleman wished to be slow in speech and quick in action."
In talking to his student Yen Hui, Confucius found him rather stupid, but by observing his action Confucius found him not stupid at all. In fact, Yen Hui was his best student.
Since jen cannot be understood by mere abstract thinking. Confucius again stressed action and practice to complement thinking. The use of language and thinking is an important part of the life-process. And Confucius was not against speech and thinking but embraced them in learning. According to Confucius, one may learn something verbally or from reading, but the knowledge thus acquired must be put into action and practice. And the action and practice must be a process of learning accompanied by conscious intelligent thinking and reflection. And this produces new knowledge which is conceptualized and may be transmitted verbally, leading to further action and practice and thinking and reflection in a continuous process. Every moment of life is a moment of learning (knowing-practice-thinking-knowing). This seems to be highly idealistic. But it is also very pragmatic. One needs not go all way out to search for something absolute or remote.
"The Way of Heaven is remote; the way of humankind is nearby."
In fact, Confucius probably did not believe in an abstract, a priori, static, "Way' or truth. The Way is man-made, and truth must be realized by man. Thus, he said:
"It is man who can open the Way (Tao), not the way that opens man." Every human being can begin the learning process, or being-jen, here and now- being a son, being a father, being an official, or being a ruler. Confucius said:
"A ruler must be (what) a ruler (should be); a subject must be (what) a subject (should be); a father must be (what) a father should be; and a son must be (what) a son (should be)."
Confucius did not define what a ruler, a subject, a father, or a son should be, because this cannot be abstractly stated and must be found out in the process of actualization and "being". Since the meaning of the above-cited statement was not defined by Confucius, it has been often interpreted to show that Confucius was an arch-conservative upholding a status qus. This interpretation is wrong, for immediately following this statement was the statement that
"Should the ruler not be a ruler, the subject would not be a subject; should the father be not a father, the son would not be a son."
The relationship is reciprocal rather than absolute.
The most common situation that an individual would find himself, especially in Confucius' time, was the family. Thus Confucius frequently advised his student to begin the living, and learning, and being process in a family situation. For this, Confucius is criticized of ever-emphasizing the family. However, Confucius emphasized the family only as a starting point. He said:
"A young man (a younger brother or son in the family) should be filially pious inside the family (the beginning point), and should practice brotherhood outside the family; he should be solemnly cautious and faithful; he should extend his love to the multitude and make himself akin to humanity (jen). When he practices doing these and still has some surplus energy, he should then learn literature. (Thus formal education is superfluous to living, learning and being)."
And:
"If one can honor the truly honorable by changing his manner; if he can do his utmost in serving his parents; if he can offer his whole self in serving his ruler; if he can be always faithful in his words in his relationship with his friends; although some may say such a person is unlearned, I will say he is learned." (Again formal learning is superfluous).
Confucius' political ideal was built in his concept of "being-jen" in the all-encompassing process of living and learning. This is an educational, a social, and a political process all in one. One serves the state well by being a good son in the family, a faithful friend to others, and a worthy member of humankind. Confucius viewed a fundamental change in the political process, by improving the political man. And he viewed the specific political programs as derivative from such a fundamental change. He said:
"In hearing litigations, I am just like any ordinary person. What I think it necessary to do is to make it that no litigation would happen."
The vision of Confucius was a world of harmonious relationship among all its component parts (states, families, individuals), in which no one struggles against the others but all strive to improve themselves in a constructive cultural process.
Confucius did not describe his ideal political, social, and moral system. And he did not prescribe any specific programs. One reason is that such an all-encompassing system or program cannot be abstractly formulated, given Confucius' distrust of words and abstract reasoning. Another reason is that once stated or prescribed, this becomes a dogma. And Confucius strongly opposed dogmatism. He said:
"Do I have (ready-made) knowledge? No. I do not have (ready-made) knowledge." "The Master terminated four things: pre-conception, groundless assurance, dogmatic conviction, and self-righteousness."
Man had no perfect knowledge, but continuously explored and improved on knowledge. Confucius said:
"The junior people are terrific. How do you know that the coming generation will not excel the present generation?"
Confucius was overly idealistic. He could not perfectly depict what was in his mind. But he was honest and he himself practised what he taught in his own circumstances. He was a life-long learner and teacher. He said:
"When I was fifteen, I had the intention to learn; at thirty, I stand fast (in living and learning); at forty, I was no longer confused; at fifty, I know the destiny from heaven; at seventy, I can follow what my heart desires and do not transgress the proper path (in lining and learning)."
He learned in any given circumstances and from those above or below him. He believed that no man should be excluded from learning and he taught whoever wanted to learn from him. He said:
"With education, no discrimination."
His students came from different places and different walks of life. There were sons of nobles and high officials, there were ex-nobles and merchants; there were the extremely poor, the incurably sick, and ex-convicts. His best student, Yen Hui, died of mal-nutrition; another student had leprosy; and he married his daughter to a student who was a former prisoner.
He did not prescribe a uniform curriculum. He taught his students according to their individual backgrounds, interests, and needs. Of the most famous students of Confucius, some devoted themselves to cultivate moral conduct; some specialized in speech and diplomacy; some specialized in government administration; some specialized in literature. The students greatly admired the Master and some would risk their life defending his honor. But very few of them truly understood the Master's teaching which was vague sometimes inconsistent. Some heard the Master praising the Chou, and devoted themselves to studying the Chou traditions. Some heard the Master stressing li and devoted to the reform of rites and manners. Some heard the Master stressing the family, and emphasized filial piety as the cardinal virtue. This led to different interpretation of Confucius' teaching and different branches of Confucianism. Later, Confucius was considered not only a sage, but a prophet, an uncrowned king, a semi-god, who was sent by Heaven to salvage the suffering world.
The classic age of Chinese thought began at a time when the old Chou religious, political, and social systems had become outmoded. The old feudal nobility declined. Its place was taken by the "new men" from the displaced nobles, appointed officials, peasant officers, etc. There was an urgent need to search for a new spiritual ideological foundation for the emerging state and society. Toward the end of the Spring and Autumn era, there was a period of uncertain peace among the central states. This relieved some of the best minds of China from the immediate concerns of battles and intrigues to take a long-range look at the future of the Chinese world and to reflect on the very nature of man. The first step in this direction was taken by Confucius.
The actual name of Confucius was K'ung Ch'iu. Those who respected him called him K'ung-tzu (Master K'ung) or simply "Tzu" (the Master). A more respectful way was to call him "Fu-Tzu" (the Venerable Master). And "Confucius" is the corrupted latinized form of "K'ung Fu-tzu" (the venerable Master K'ung). He was born in the state of Lü in 551 B.C. He was a descendant of the feudal house of the state of Sung, which was in turn the descendant of the Shang ruling clan. Confucius' family had moved to live in the state of Lu for some generations. He was therefore one of the displaced nobles in two senses.
Like many other displaced nobles, Confucius had a relatively good educational background. And like many other ambitions young men of his time, he was anxious to make an official career. He served in several minor government positions and acquired a broad knowledge of the world. In addition to the basic training in rituals and manner (li), music, archery, driving, writing, and counting, he was particularly interested in historical documents (shu) and odes (shih). He was most inquisitive and, according to his own saying, he could find a teacher in every gathering of three persons from whom he might learn something, big or small.
As his knowledge increased, his opinions on the current state of affairs also changed, ideal vs. reality. From a meticulous observer of the established conventions, he became an ardent advocator of reform. His fame began to spread. Around him gathered a group of like-minded "intellectuals", some older and some younger than Confucius. These became his early friends-and-disciples. The gathering constituted both a school of learning and a group of political activists. This probably got him into some difficulty. In 517 B.C., he left the state of Lü and went to Ch'i (and probable some other states), for two years. After he returned, he had some success in his official career. From 501 B.C. to 497 B.C., he rose to certain high positions. But he did not remain in high office too long.
In about 497 B.C., Confucius at the age of 54 was convinced that he could not put his ideal of reform in practice at Lu. He left the state and travelled to the other states (Weh, Ch'en, Ts'ai, Sung, and probably Chou and Cheng as well as some others), trying to find a ruler who could adopt his teaching. He was unsuccessful and suffered many hardships. Meanwhile, some of his friends and disciples had become influential in Lu and a few other states. In 484 B.C. at the age of 67 he was welcomed back to Lu, where he devoted his remaining 5 years to writing, learning and teaching. It was said that although he had seventy-two disciples and some 3000 lesser students. He died in 479 B.C. at the age of seventy-two. After his death, his friends and disciples gathered the accounts on the Master's sayings (and some outstanding actions) into a work, Lun-yü ("The Analects"), which constitutes the most reliable source concerning his teaching.
Confucius did not advocate violent revolution or destruction of the old institutions. Nor did he attempt to preserve them. He once said:
"The Chou dynasty learned the lessons of the two preceding dynasties (the Hsia and the Shang), and greatly improved the culture. I follow Chou."
This has often been interpreted to mean that Confucius looked back to the past for a model of perfection. But Confucius opined that Chou, a later dynasty, was better than its predecessors, and that he would follow an improved model rather than an earlier one. On another occasion, he said:
"The Chou inherited the Shang tradition (li, convention), but changed it as we know the Shang, in turn, had inherited the Hsia tradition, but also changed it as we know. According to this, we may know the condition of a time ten dynasties (generations?) further away from the present (in the past? or in the future?)."
From this, we may say the Confucius did not see civilization as static. He saw it as continuously changing. But he advocated change only a good purpose, not for its own sake. Thus he said that would used the calender of the Hsia (which was believed to be more accurate), ride on the the carriage of the Shang (which was still better), and wear the official cap of the Chou. (Legge, I, 298) Although Confucius probably believed that some elements of the Chou tradition were good, he did not define these. He thought li was important but he did not prescribe a system of li.
He might still believe in Heaven. For instance, once he had an interview with a notorious lady, and was afterward criticized by his disciple; in exasperation, he cried out: "If I had done any thing wrong, let Heaven condemn me!" In another occasion when his life was in danger, he exclaimed: "If Heaven wills to destroy civilization, I will die not seeing it; but if Heaven does not will to destroy civilization, no one can do me harm." All these were occasions of emotional outburst. Confucius seldom mentioned Heaven in his rational exposition. Once a disciple inquired about spirits and ghosts, Confucius said:
"(You) have not been able to serve men, how can (you) serve the dead?" The disciple ventured to inquire about death, and Confucius said:
"(You) have not yet known life, how can (you) know death."
"Men", human beings, each in his own station here and now, became the new basis on which Confucius hoped to build a new world. Most Confucius sayings in the Lun-yu were focused on "human being", even though on many occasions he did not specifically use the term.
The most important element in Confucius' teaching was expressed in the term jen, (a character made up of two human beings). This term has been variously translated as "love", "kindheartedness", "humankindness". The proper rendering should be "Being-human". Confucius opined that without jen, li and music would be of no worth; but if one aimed at jen, there would be no evil. Confucius praised many individual persons for their other virtues, but he seldom ever considered them to be attaining jen. Jen was not a mere state, which may be described and reached, but was a direction which all should aim at and a process in which every human being ascends to a higher state from which he will ascend to a still higher state. In a sense, Confucius' concept of jen is similar to the existentialist "being", which must be found out and existentially realized by every human being. It cannot be verbally described or stated, but must be actualized in action.
Since it is a process of "being-human", no man will be incapable of jen, but no man will be above and beyond it.
The second important element in Confucius' teaching is the ideal of learning and education. Confucius' concept of learning and education is closely related to his ideal of jen. To Confucius, education means not only formal schooling but a life-long process of being-jen learning and developing human essence. An all-encompassing social process in which every individual continuously improves himself and the whole mankind elevates themselves to a higher and higher state. It means civilization itself. Since jen cannot be abstractly stated, Confucius quite distrusted verbal communication in learning and education. He frequently criticized empty words and fine talks and emphasized the importance of action and practice. He said:
"In ancient times, people would not speak out, being ashamed that they might not be able to practice it."
"A gentleman wished to be slow in speech and quick in action."
In talking to his student Yen Hui, Confucius found him rather stupid, but by observing his action Confucius found him not stupid at all. In fact, Yen Hui was his best student.
Since jen cannot be understood by mere abstract thinking. Confucius again stressed action and practice to complement thinking. The use of language and thinking is an important part of the life-process. And Confucius was not against speech and thinking but embraced them in learning. According to Confucius, one may learn something verbally or from reading, but the knowledge thus acquired must be put into action and practice. And the action and practice must be a process of learning accompanied by conscious intelligent thinking and reflection. And this produces new knowledge which is conceptualized and may be transmitted verbally, leading to further action and practice and thinking and reflection in a continuous process. Every moment of life is a moment of learning (knowing-practice-thinking-knowing). This seems to be highly idealistic. But it is also very pragmatic. One needs not go all way out to search for something absolute or remote.
"The Way of Heaven is remote; the way of humankind is nearby."
In fact, Confucius probably did not believe in an abstract, a priori, static, "Way' or truth. The Way is man-made, and truth must be realized by man. Thus, he said:
"It is man who can open the Way (Tao), not the way that opens man." Every human being can begin the learning process, or being-jen, here and now- being a son, being a father, being an official, or being a ruler. Confucius said:
"A ruler must be (what) a ruler (should be); a subject must be (what) a subject (should be); a father must be (what) a father should be; and a son must be (what) a son (should be)."
Confucius did not define what a ruler, a subject, a father, or a son should be, because this cannot be abstractly stated and must be found out in the process of actualization and "being". Since the meaning of the above-cited statement was not defined by Confucius, it has been often interpreted to show that Confucius was an arch-conservative upholding a status qus. This interpretation is wrong, for immediately following this statement was the statement that
"Should the ruler not be a ruler, the subject would not be a subject; should the father be not a father, the son would not be a son."
The relationship is reciprocal rather than absolute.
The most common situation that an individual would find himself, especially in Confucius' time, was the family. Thus Confucius frequently advised his student to begin the living, and learning, and being process in a family situation. For this, Confucius is criticized of ever-emphasizing the family. However, Confucius emphasized the family only as a starting point. He said:
"A young man (a younger brother or son in the family) should be filially pious inside the family (the beginning point), and should practice brotherhood outside the family; he should be solemnly cautious and faithful; he should extend his love to the multitude and make himself akin to humanity (jen). When he practices doing these and still has some surplus energy, he should then learn literature. (Thus formal education is superfluous to living, learning and being)."
And:
"If one can honor the truly honorable by changing his manner; if he can do his utmost in serving his parents; if he can offer his whole self in serving his ruler; if he can be always faithful in his words in his relationship with his friends; although some may say such a person is unlearned, I will say he is learned." (Again formal learning is superfluous).
Confucius' political ideal was built in his concept of "being-jen" in the all-encompassing process of living and learning. This is an educational, a social, and a political process all in one. One serves the state well by being a good son in the family, a faithful friend to others, and a worthy member of humankind. Confucius viewed a fundamental change in the political process, by improving the political man. And he viewed the specific political programs as derivative from such a fundamental change. He said:
"In hearing litigations, I am just like any ordinary person. What I think it necessary to do is to make it that no litigation would happen."
The vision of Confucius was a world of harmonious relationship among all its component parts (states, families, individuals), in which no one struggles against the others but all strive to improve themselves in a constructive cultural process.
Confucius did not describe his ideal political, social, and moral system. And he did not prescribe any specific programs. One reason is that such an all-encompassing system or program cannot be abstractly formulated, given Confucius' distrust of words and abstract reasoning. Another reason is that once stated or prescribed, this becomes a dogma. And Confucius strongly opposed dogmatism. He said:
"Do I have (ready-made) knowledge? No. I do not have (ready-made) knowledge." "The Master terminated four things: pre-conception, groundless assurance, dogmatic conviction, and self-righteousness."
Man had no perfect knowledge, but continuously explored and improved on knowledge. Confucius said:
"The junior people are terrific. How do you know that the coming generation will not excel the present generation?"
Confucius was overly idealistic. He could not perfectly depict what was in his mind. But he was honest and he himself practised what he taught in his own circumstances. He was a life-long learner and teacher. He said:
"When I was fifteen, I had the intention to learn; at thirty, I stand fast (in living and learning); at forty, I was no longer confused; at fifty, I know the destiny from heaven; at seventy, I can follow what my heart desires and do not transgress the proper path (in lining and learning)."
He learned in any given circumstances and from those above or below him. He believed that no man should be excluded from learning and he taught whoever wanted to learn from him. He said:
"With education, no discrimination."
His students came from different places and different walks of life. There were sons of nobles and high officials, there were ex-nobles and merchants; there were the extremely poor, the incurably sick, and ex-convicts. His best student, Yen Hui, died of mal-nutrition; another student had leprosy; and he married his daughter to a student who was a former prisoner.
He did not prescribe a uniform curriculum. He taught his students according to their individual backgrounds, interests, and needs. Of the most famous students of Confucius, some devoted themselves to cultivate moral conduct; some specialized in speech and diplomacy; some specialized in government administration; some specialized in literature. The students greatly admired the Master and some would risk their life defending his honor. But very few of them truly understood the Master's teaching which was vague sometimes inconsistent. Some heard the Master praising the Chou, and devoted themselves to studying the Chou traditions. Some heard the Master stressing li and devoted to the reform of rites and manners. Some heard the Master stressing the family, and emphasized filial piety as the cardinal virtue. This led to different interpretation of Confucius' teaching and different branches of Confucianism. Later, Confucius was considered not only a sage, but a prophet, an uncrowned king, a semi-god, who was sent by Heaven to salvage the suffering world.
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Text source: Confucius and the Classic Age of Chinese Thought. Selections from a history of ancient China by Professor Chi-yun Chen, Professor Emeritus of Chinese History at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Reprinted by permission. All Rights Reserved.
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